combat sports

There is considerable evidence that young men are particularly vulnerable to depression and suicide. This is sometimes associated with a putative ‘crisis of masculinity’ precipitated by the impact of feminism on Western culture. The author of this paper argues that combat sports represent an arena where young men may be accorded respect and esteem by peers through the demonstration of traditional masculine virtues in a controlled and clearly defined setting.

Furthermore, where the rules of particular combat sports include explicit prescriptions and proscriptions regarding etiquette they also teach participants the importance of self control, fair play, honour and consideration for the welfare of others.

The author reviews some of the research on, and the theory and practice of, traditional combat sports (e.g. wrestling, judo, boxing, Muay Thai) and modern combat sports (e.g. Western kick-boxing, mixed martial arts). After considering this evidence he proposes a hypothesis that it is possible to develop and promote combat sports which address the concerns of safety campaigners, the concerns of critics of violent male subcultures but also retain the elements of spectacle and challenge which make such pursuits attractive to potential spectators and participants.

Introduction

Combat sports may be defined as sports wherein two individual combatants (usually - but not exclusively - men or boys) fight each other using realistic fighting techniques according to pre-arranged rules. Thus, combat sports differ from other sports inasmuch as the objective of any contest is for one of the participants to subdue his/her opponent using techniques (or variations of techniques) which would be used in real self-defence situations and/or would (prior to the introduction of modern weaponry) once have been employed in battle (Thompson, 1995; Lewis, 1996). Such sports have a long history and there is considerable variation in the degree of physical contact and level of protective equipment permitted. Forms of wrestling and boxing were among the sporting contests which featured in the Olympic Games of ancient Greece while the Romans may well have introduced pugilism to Britain and similar sports existed in China over two thousand years ago (Gorn, 1986; Sugden, 1996; Wong, 1996). Throughout this long history there has never been any shortage of those who wish to test their skills in such sports nor of non-participant spectators (Brailsford 1969; Ford, 1971; Gorn, 1986). However, as the advance of modernity has rendered ordinary daily living less brutal and less risky, there has been growing concern to develop formats for combat sports which minimize the risks to participants but still allow them to demonstrate their skills and thereby provide a thrilling spectacle for spectators. Thus, in the West, bare-knuckle prizefighting has evolved into modern boxing, similar reforms have been introduced into Asian combat sports such as Muay Thai, while sporting forms have been developed from ancient martial arts such as fencing, kung fu and ju-jitsu (Brailsford, 1969; Ford, 1971; Sutton, 1993; Lewis, 1996).

Nevertheless, as all combat sports originate from authentic (albeit often out-dated) martial arts, practitioners of combat sports often experience justifiable doubt and anxiety about their ability to adapt their sport- fighting techniques for use in real-life self-defence situations (see Thompson 2000; Iannoccarro, 2000; O’Keefe, 2001). Furthermore, this is not merely a practical consideration. In some instances it may also be connected with the idea of being part of a long historical tradition, and being faithful to the tradition established my ancient masters (Explanatory note: It is customary in martial arts to use the title Master for female as well as male experts). Consequently, in the latter half of the twentieth century practitioners of some relatively safe combat sports (such as traditional karate) developed new full-contact competition formats in an effort to test their skills under pressure (e.g. Muzila 1992; Ligo, 1994). Initially, this led to the development of various sets of rules for kickboxing and full contact karate. More recently, though, forms of ‘full contact’ competition have been developed which allow practitioners of striking arts such as karate, boxing and kung fu to compete on equal terms with practitioners of grappling arts such as judo and wrestling — and vice versa (Dempsey, 1999). These competition formats are generally known as mixed martial arts, No Holds Barred (NHB), Vale Tudo (Portugese for ‘anything goes’) or Limited Rules fighting, and are promoted under the auspices of various commercial organizations such as Ultimate Fighting Championship in the USA (which will be holding its first UK event at the Royal Albert Hall, London in July 2002) and the Total Fight Forum in the UK. However, such events have attracted considerable negative attention in the mass media, received a mixed reception in the world of martial arts and have sometimes been banned by local politicians. In this paper, the author examines the rationales for the development of these competition formats, the concerns of those who are critical of them and discusses the possible social, psychological and spiritual benefits which would-be participants might derive from taking part in relatively safe limited rules fighting contests.

The Moral Panic

Leaving aside the American prohibition on the practice of martial arts in Japan in the years after the Second World War, the various prohibitions on martial arts throughout the history of China and legal bans on certain types of martial arts weapon (Sutton , 1993; Friman, 1998), those who seek to ban the practice of martial arts and/or combat sports may be divided into two camps. First, there are those who believe that any sporting activity which encourages aggressive behaviour is morally troublesome and should be discouraged (Miedzian, 1992). Second, there are those whose principal objection is to fighting contests which permit techniques (such as blows to the head) which may cause life-threatening injuries or ultimately cause long-term disabilities (Corsellis, 1989; Hasdell, 1999).

However, some of the critics of No Holds Barred/Limited Rules martial arts contests also argue that such contests are little more than streetfighting and should therefore be banned as they effectively legitimate street violence. Thus, press reports of No Holds Barred/Limited Rules martial arts contests have variously described it as being "a violent street brawl" (Greanery, 1999), ‘just about blokes punching the crap out of each other" (Dempsey, 2000), and "a barbaric sport…which should be banned" (Lawlor 1999); while a Manchester (UK) Councillor has been quoted as saying , "We have enough problems with young male violence without setting up this sort of gladiators event" and a Labour MP suggested that No Holds Barred fighting "sends out strong signals about what is actually acceptable in society". Ironically the critics of No Holds Barred/Limited Rules martial arts contests include practising martial artists, active participants in other combat sports and people involved in the licensing or promotion of events featuring other combat sports (Lawlor, 1999; Dempsey, 2000; Sweet, 2000).

Calls to ban No Holds Barred/Limited Rules martial arts contests seem to be based on four key assumptions . The first of these is that the rules of combat sports somehow define the limits of aggressive behaviour that will be tolerated in wider society. Therefore it is assumed that if combat sports which have relatively few rules are formally sanctioned, the official acceptance of such sports will encourage street violence. The second is that the fewer rules for a given combat sport, the less discipline and skill are required to participate in that sport. The third is that as boxing is widely acknowledged to be a dangerous sport, any combat sport which permits a wider range of full contact techniques than boxing must necessarily be more dangerous than boxing. The fourth is that spectators at such events are motivated by a primitive bloodlust and that fighters may therefore be coerced into continuing to fight (whether in a particular contest or the sport in general) even when it would be in their own best interests to retire. These assumptions seem to arise from the popular understanding of how and why prizefighting evolved into modern boxing and theories about aggression and violence. However, these are untested hypotheses and may therefore be challenged.

The question of the relationship between watching or performing in aggressive and violent entertainment and the incidence of real violence is a difficult one to resolve. It is certainly true that when prizefighting was in its heyday in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, daily life was much more brutal than it is today. However, this is usually considered to be an explanation for why prizefighting flourished, rather than cited as evidence of the detrimental effect which aggressive sports may have upon social order , although there were concerns about the threat to public order posed by the large crowds which sometimes gathered to watch the more famous fighters (Ford, 1971). On the other hand, it is true that some of the fighters who participate in the bloody and violent unlicensed boxing events which continue to take place today have records for violent crime and that spectators at such events may sometimes be hostile to fighters who lack spirit or defeat their favourite fighters (Hotten, 1998). This, though, is arguably more a reflection of the underworld at the extreme margins of society of which unlicensed fighting is a feature, than an inevitable consequence of permitting any kind of limited rules fighting competition.

There is also research (which although inconclusive) shows that a person’s levels of hostility may rise and his/her capacity for empathy may drop immediately after watching aggressive sporting contests (Arms, Russell and Sandilands, 1979). Interestingly, though, a detailed study of audience reactions to some well-known violent movies on general release during the 1990s revealed that physical and emotional response to the movies was "complex and fluid" and that "anticipation, context and individual experience shape the process of viewing violence and generate active and dynamic moviegoers" (Hill, 1997 p37). The findings of both these studies would seem to suggest that the only way to know how spectators are affected by watching limited rules/no holds barred martial arts contests is to conduct systematic research into what they think and feel before, after and during such events. In any case, although there is some evidence that aggressive and violent behaviour may be learnt by observing others modelling such behaviour this is dependent upon several variables (Feldman, 1993). Thus, for the vast majority of the population exposure to aggression and violence as a passive spectator is generally considered to of relatively minor significance as a determinant of whether or not they ever exhibit aggressive or violent behaviour themselves (Feldman, 1993; Gilligan, 1999).

Much of the negative coverage of No Holds Barred/Limited Rules martial arts contests in the press and on television and radio has referred to fatalities and serious disabling injuries suffered by fighters in poorly supervised events in countries in the former USSR and on semi-underground circuits in the USA (Hasdell 1999; Dempsey, 1999). While no-one wishes to trivialize such incidents, those involved in promoting No Holds Barred/Limited Rules fighting on respectable circuits have repeatedly emphasized that under the rules which they have devised and uphold, such incidents would be unlikely to occur in events promoted by them. For example, at a UK Press Conference held at the Sports Café in London’s Haymarket on 17^th April 2002 to promote the July 2002 Ultimate Fighting Championship Event in London, UFC President Dana White explained that there had been no serious injury to any fighter in any of the UFC’s previous 36 promotions and described how the UFC had co-operated with various US State Athletic Commissions to develop a standard set of rules designed to optimize the safety of competitors in all mixed martial arts events. Similarly, in the UK the raison d’etre of ju-jutsu based organisations such as the Knockdown Sport Budo Organisation (which outlaws blows to the head, for example) and Ross Iannacarro’s "Grapple and Strike" (in whose events blows to the head are permitted but the use of headguards is compulsory) is the formulation and refinement of rules which allow for realistic but safe fighting competitions, while Lee Hasdell of Total Fight Forum (who admittedly argues a case for not outlawing blows to unprotected heads in mixed martial arts contests) has actively (but hitherto unsuccessfully) sought the assistance of the British Medical Assocation to ensure that risks to competitors are minimized (http://www.fighting.co.uk; Hasdell, 1999) . This is not to say that there are no risks involved in training for and participating in No Holds Barred/Limited Rules martial arts competitions. Many sports involve the risk of injury. For example, the film star Christopher Reeve is paralysed as the result of a show-jumping accident while many footballers have their careers prematurely ended by leg injuries and professional cyclists often sustain serious injuries and sometimes even die in road races such as the Tour de France. Similarly, although it is rarely acknowledged, many professional wrestlers suffer from chronic joint pains while others have been killed or permanently injured as a result of taking part in professional wrestling matches, which (although professional wrestling requires more skill than many members of the general public appreciate) are perhaps one of the most carefully stage-managed forms of sporting entertainment (Byshee, and King, 1999). However, a key factor in demands for banning No Holds Barred/Limited Rules martial arts contests is the unfavourable comparisons between these events and boxing; a sport which many people believe should itself be banned because of the emphasis placed on boxers deliberately attacking their opponents’ heads, and the proven links between punches to the head, permanent brain damage and fatal injuries. Inasmuch as it is possible to completely ban blows to the head in Limited Rules martial arts contests (thereby making them virtually No Holds Barred contests) without reducing their entertainment value , it would seem to be a viable alternative to boxing, rather than a sport which is inherently more dangerous than boxing. Furthermore, even where blows to the head are permitted, it is the nature of mixed martial arts that aiming for the head is not usually the best strategic option, not least because fights are more usually won with submission holds. (This could be explained in more detail but discussing the technicalities of mixed martial arts practice is not the primary aim of this paper and the author is not qualified to teach mixed martial arts).

The question of the degree of discipline and skill required to train and compete in mixed martial arts is difficult to answer with any degree of objectivity. However, a respected martial artist and self-defence expert who admits to personal experience of real fighting maintains that streetfighters rarely use sophisticated techniques and tend to lack the stamina required to last more than a few seconds and that this is what may give a martial artist an advantage over such a person (Thompson, 1995). In contrast to this the practice of martial arts is intended to build up stamina, flexibility of the body , a repertoire of effective techniques and an understanding of tactics and strategy. If the assumptions that practising martial arts does result in such benefits and also requires dedication, hard training and willingness to behave in a disciplined manner are correct, it would seem reasonable to conclude that competitive martial artists are no less skilled than athletes from other disciplines. Furthermore, it would seem to be axiomatic that the greater the variety of techniques which a competitive martial artist may have to defend against in competition, the greater the discipline that will be required in training, and the greater the level of skill that may be acquired.

The question of the motivation of spectators is also a difficult one to answer; not least because of the widespread phenomenon of sporting violence among spectators and participants of both aggressive and what are supposed to be non-contact sports. However, following the logic of Bataille’s arguments about transgression, it might be argued that a sport which is explicitly a simulation of actual combat and which has clearly defined boundaries is less of a threat to social order than violence which breaks taboos and violates codes of conduct in an uncontrolled manner and without the explicit consent of all involved (see Bataille, 1987).

The positive dimension to No Holds Barred/Limited Rules Fighting

Contrary to popular belief, winning is not the sole objective of sporting competition. Other dimensions to competition include: the challenge to test one’s skill against another is the ultimate test of that skill, appreciate the skill of a stronger opponent, to win or lose graciously; the opportunity; heightened physical and emotional awareness and the reciprocal sharing of acquired skills with an opponent (Wolf-Light, 1992). For martial artists there are the additional challenges to conquer fear, to simultaneously attack and defend, to withstand a degree of physical pain, to consider one’s physical and emotional vulnerabilities and to continue to show proper respect for an opponent whose actions may be provoking feelings of frustration, humiliation or even anger. These challenges (some of which are unique to martial arts and combat sports) can only be experienced if some degree of force is permitted by the rules of a contest. Therefore, the closer the form of the contest is to real fighting, the more fully these challenges will be faced. Furthermore, as Bataille has argued, transgressing a social taboo (in this case the taboo on aggression and violence) in a specific controlled contest does not deny the taboo. Instead it transcends it and completes it as transgression is a conscious act which is qualitatively different from simple disinhibition and which offers the possibility of the unique learning which may come from confronting an experience which would in any other circumstances be truly terrifying (Batialle, 1987 cf. Thompson, 1995) Additionally, there is some evidence that when a person suffers physical pain at the hands of another in a consensual context, s/he may have transcendental experiences (Beckmann, 1998). Thus, No Holds Barred/Limited Rules martial arts contests arguably allow for greater acquisition of self-knowledge and self awareness than other forms of martial arts contests (such as light contact karate, for example) and may therefore facilitate the deepest possible appreciation of the spiritual dimensions of the martial arts (Maliszewski, 1996).

Humanistic psychologists believe that the key to healthy self-esteem is the deepening of ones’ self awareness and self knowledge (Rogers, 1951; Maslow, 1970). There are currently growing concerns about the relatively high incidence of depression and suicide amongst men in general and young men in particular and this is sometimes linked to a putative ‘crisis of masculinity’ precipitated by men’s growing sensitivity to the concerns and achievements of the feminist movement (Coyle and Sykes 1998; Madge, 1999; Stewart, 2000). However, notwithstanding the concerns and beliefs of some feminist and pro-feminist writers (e.g. Stoltenberg, 1990; Miedzian, 1992) the relationship between biology, social conditioning, patterns of thought and behaviour is extremely complex (Ridley, 1993; Hedaya, 1996). Thus, inasmuch as masculinity in Western society has been defined in terms of aggression, competitiveness, physical strength and fitness, there will inevitably be young men who seek to test themselves in ways which allow them to measure themselves against such ideals. If they are systematically denied such opportunities in legitimate arenas, they may become involved in activities which are harmful to themselves and/or others. Indeed, it is not uncommon for young men to pursue such idealised masculinities through body-building (a culture wherein they may easily be persuaded to develop practices which are likely to result in long-term physical health problems) (Wacquant1995) and/or seeking employment in the world of door supervision (a world where brutal attacks on doormen by aggrieved customers is regarded as an occupational hazard and where it can be difficult to escape a vicious circle of interpersonal violence) (Thompson, 2000; Winlow, Hobbes et al, 2001). Therefore, again following the logic of Georges Batailles, No Holds Barred/Limited Rules mixed martial arts competitions should be regarded as part of the solution to the problems of male violence in society, rather than as a phenomenon which contributes further to those problems. In mixed martial arts, high levels of physical fitness are a pre-requisite and, unlike in the world of door supervision, each participant is guaranteed a fair fight with an opponent who will respect him, and can bring the fight to an end by submitting at any moment if he should feel overwhelmed.

Conclusion

While the critics of No Holds Barred/Limited Rules martial arts competitions argue that these competitions are a barbaric anachronism, the phenomenon is perhaps better understood as one of the inevitable consequences of post-modernity. In the nineteenth century, Karl Marx argued that the advent of mass production alienated the craftsman and craftswoman from the creative process of production. Similarly, the post-feminist sexual politics, the complex social organisation, and the high level of reliance on sophisticated technology which characterizes post-modern society has alienated us from many of those activities through which we experience emotional pleasure through the use of our bodies. For example, in the past a person may have derived a sense of achievement from completing an arduous journey without the aid of mechanical transport or from using their physical strength and skill to build their own home. Activities such as yoga, weight training, martial arts and extreme sports such as mountaineering are among the activities which may help people recapture similar psychological and emotional experiences. Extreme sports such as mountaineering, white-water rafting and sky-diving may also have additional spiritual benefits for those who participate as they entail exposure to psychological and emotional experiences which are no longer commonly encountered in the daily lives of many of those who live in sophisticated post-industrial societies. Notwithstanding its transgressive qualities No Holds Barred/Limited Rules mixed martial arts has a clearly defined culture, offers the possibility of similar emotional and psychological experiences and actively seeks acceptance by mainstream society. Thus it should be viewed in the same way as these kinds of extreme sports and not as an attempt to legitimate certain forms of inter-personal violence or as misguided nostalgia for the bare knuckle prizefighting of yesteryear.

Acknowledgement

Paul Lloyd Davies of the Department of Academic Legal Studies, Nottingham Trent University has been of great assistance to the author in the preparation of this paper; providing historical and technical details, and facilitating semi-participant observation opportunities. An earlier draft of this paper is currently being developed into a proposal for a book which would be co-authored by John Hopton, Paul Lloyd Davies and Colin Clelland (Consultant Pathologist at John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford)

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